ROMAN empire

 Exploring the Fascinating History of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire is one of the most iconic and influential civilizations in history. From its origins as a small city-state in Italy, it grew into a vast empire that dominated much of the Mediterranean world and beyond. Today, its legacy can be seen in everything from our legal systems to our architecture and art. In this post, we'll explore the fascinating history of the Roman Empire and its lasting impact on the world.

The Rise of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was founded in 27 BC, after years of political and military turmoil in Rome. Its first emperor was Augustus, who brought stability and prosperity to the city and expanded its territory through military conquests. Under Augustus and subsequent emperors, the Roman Empire grew to encompass much of Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.

One of the key factors in the success of the Roman Empire was its military strength. The Roman army was known for its discipline, organization, and innovation, and it conquered many other civilizations through a combination of force and diplomacy. The empire was also famous for its engineering feats, including its roads, aqueducts, and monumental architecture.

Culture and Society in the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was a diverse and complex society, with a wide range of social classes, religions, and cultural traditions. Its citizens spoke Latin and Greek, and its art and literature drew on influences from across the Mediterranean world.

The empire was also known for its legal system, which heavily influenced modern law. Roman law emphasized the importance of individual rights and due process, and it was based on a complex system of codes and precedents. Many of the legal concepts and institutions developed by the Romans, such as the jury system and the notion of innocent until proven guilty, are still used today.

The Decline and Legacy of the Roman Empire

Despite its many achievements, the Roman Empire eventually began to decline. Internal problems such as political instability, economic crises, and military overextension weakened the empire, while external pressures from invading barbarian tribes further weakened its defenses. In 476 AD, the last Roman emperor was overthrown, marking the end of the ancient world and the beginning of the Middle Ages.

However, the legacy of the Roman Empire continues to influence modern Western culture and society. Its art, literature, and philosophy continue to inspire and inform contemporary artists and thinkers, while its legal and political concepts continue to shape our systems of governance. The Roman Empire may be long gone, but its impact on the world endures.

Conclusion

The Roman Empire is a fascinating and complex civilization that has left an indelible mark on the world. Its rise and fall, its military and cultural achievements, and its lasting legacy are all worth exploring for anyone interested in history or culture. Whether you're a scholar, a student, or just a curious reader, the Roman Empire offers a wealth of insights and inspiration.

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

 Vijayanagar was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century. in its heyday it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south pf the peninsula. in 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted .although if fell into ruins in the seventeenth centuries .it lived on in the memories of people living in the krishna-thugbhadra doab. they remembered it as Hampi a name derived from that of the local mother goddess,pampadevi .these oral traditions combined with archeological finds, monuments and inscriptions and other records helped scholars to rediscover the Vijayanagar empire'

                                            

RAYAS ,NAYAKAS AND SULTANS

According to traditions and epigraphic evidence two brothers ,Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagar empire in 1336 . this empire included within its fluctuating frontier people who spoke different language and followed different religious traditions.

on their northern frontier the Vijayanagar kings completed with contemporary ruler -including the sultans of the deccan and Gajapati rulers of orisa for control of the fertile river valley and the resources generated by lucrative overseas trade .at the same time , interaction between these states led to sharing of ideas ,especially  in the field of architecture. the ruler of Vijayanagar borrowed concept and building techniques which they then developed further. 

some of the areas that were incorporated within the empire had witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the cholas in the tamil nadu and the Hoysala in Karnataka .ruling elites  these states had extended patronage to elaborate temples such as the brideshwara temple at tahnjvur and the Channakeshava who called themselves rayas built on these traditions and carried them as we will see literally to new heights.

TRADERS AND KINGS                           

 

As warfare during these times depend upon effective cavalry the import of horses from the Arabia and central Asia was very important for rival kingdoms . this trade was initially controlled by Arab traders Local communities of merchants known as  KHUDIRAI CHETTI or horse merchants also participated in these exchanges . from 1498 other actors appeared on the scene .theses were Portuguese who arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent and attempted to establish trading and military stations .their superior military technology especially the muskets enabled them to become the important players in the tangled politics of the period .

      

             In fact Vijayanagar was also noted for its market dealing in spice textile and precious stones. trade was often regard as status symbol for such cites which boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high value exotic goods especially precious stones and jewelry .the revenue derived from the trade in turn contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.

                                                                reference:NCERT

                                                          

 

 water pollution

Available water resources are degrading rapidly .the major rivers of the country generally retain better water quality in less densely populated upper stretches in hilly areas .plain river water is used intensively for irrigation ,drinking ,domestic and industrial purposes .the drain carrying agricultural fertilizers and insecticides ,domestic solid and liquid wastes and industrial effluents join the rivers the concentration of pollutants in river especially remains very high during summer seasons when flow of water is low.

 the central pollution control board (PCB)in collaboration with state pollution control board has been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507stations .the data obtained from these stations show that organic and bacterial contamination continues to be main source of pollution in rivers .the ground water pollution has occurred due to high concentration of heavy /toxic metals. fluoride and nitrates at different parts of world .

                                                                     REFERANCE: NCERT

 The nationalist movement

In so far Ghandhiji was the most influential and revered of all time the leadres who participated in the freedom struggle ,that characterisation is not misplaced . however like washing ton ,mahatma ghandhi political career was shaped and constrained by the society in which he lived for individual ,even great ones are made by the history even as they make history 

this article article analyses Gandhiji's activities  during crusial period 1915-1948.it expolres his interaction with different kinds sources that he inspired and led .

the social movements (1915-1948)

1.A leader announces himself

2.non cooperation 

3.the salt satyagraha

4.quit india

1. leader announces himself

      THE india that mahatama ghandhi came back to in 1915 was rather different from the one that he he had left in 1893.although still colony of the british it was far more active in a political sense .the indian 

 congress now had branches in the major cities and towns .through sawdish movement of 1905-1907 it had had great broadened its appeal among the middle classes. that movement had thrown up some towering leaders -among them bal gangadhar tilak of maharastra ,bipin chandra pal of bengal and lala lajpat rai of punjab.the three were known as ~'lai,bal and pal'.the alliteration conveying the all india character of their struggle ,since thier antive provinces were very distant from one another .

 2.non cooperation

MAHATMA GHANDHI was to spend much of 1917 in champaran  seeking to obtain for the peasant security of tenure as well as the freedom to cultivate the crops of their choice .the following year ,1918 ghandhi ji was involved in two campaign in his home state of Gujarat .first he intervened in a labour dispute in ahmedabad ,demanding better working conditions for the textile mill workers then he joined peasant in kheda in asking the state for the remission of taxes following the failure of their harvest.hoped that by coupling  non cooperation with khilafat .india two major religious communities hindu muslim could collectively bring end to colonial rule.students stoped going to school and colleges run by the govt .lawyers refused to attend court .the working class went on strike in many towns and cites the countryside seething with discontent too.during the non- cooperation movement thousands of indians were put in jail ghandhiji he,mself was arrestedand charged with sedition .mahatma ghandhi was released from prison infeb 1924 nad now chose to devote his atention to the promotion of home spun cloth and khadi the abolition of untouchbility 

3.the salt satyagraha 

For severals years after the non-cooperation  movement ended ,mahatama ghandhi focused on his social reform ended. on 26 january 1930 independent atday was obesrved with national falg was hosted at different venues and patriotic songs being sung .ghandhji suggested that the time of meeting be advertised in the traditional way ny beating drums .the celebration would  begin  with the hoisting  of the national flag the rest of day would be spend in doing constructive work whether it is spinning or services of untouchables or reunion of muslims and hindus  and muslims  even all these together if any govt deprive people of these rights and opperres them the people have further right to alte or abbolish it.

Dandi 

soon after the obsevance of this independence day mahatama ghandhi announced

that he would lead a march to break one of the most widely disliked laws in british india which gave state monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt.for every indian household salt was indispensable people were forbidden from making salt even for domstic use compelling them to buy it from shops at high price'

4.QUIT INDIA 

MAHATAMa GHANDHI decided to launch his third major movement against british rule. this was the 'quit india 'campaign ,which began in august 1942.altough ghandhi ji was jailed at once ,younger activits organised strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country .particularly active in the underground resistance wereb socialist members of the congress such as jaya prakash narayn .quit india movement was genuinely a mass movement .bringing into its amibit hundred of thousand of ordinary indians.it espicially energisedthe young who ,in very large numbers ,left their colleges to go jails.